Putting Limits on
the Diversity of Life
Fernando Castro-Chavez suggests that the working Principles are:
1. Life can only be originated from Life (based on the work of Louis Pasteur, founder of microbiology, against
"spontaneous generation", against "abiogenesis").
2. Organisms
can only originate similar organisms (based
on the work of Gregor Mendel, founder of genetics through his "Laws of
Heredity", against a random and unlimited variation between organisms).
The working Equations are:
1-) Genes + Environment = Restrained Variation
2-) P1 + P2 = F1 Fertile {If... Then,
corollary: P1 and P2 are varieties of the same Kind or Genos, no matter
how morphologically different they may appear. Example:
3-) P1 + P2 = F1 Sterile {If... Then,
corollary: P1 and P2 are members of a different Kind or Genos, no matter
how morphologically similar they may appear. Example: Horse and Ass}
Limiting first,
the classification of 'True Species' ('Kind') to organisms that can have
fertile offspring, some examples are provided.
Useful Link:
Research on Intelligent Design
fdocc at yahoo
dot com
Using the same principles illustrated on
"Adaptive Comparisons of Cave Animals": "closely related Mexican
cave fish and a widespread surface form are so similar that some scientists
think all may be subspecies of the same animal... [and that they] can
interbreed, and residents of some caves show all degrees of eye and pigment
degeneration", and the same can be said for the rest of varieties of
organisms presented there:
http://www.geocities.com/kubyimm3/adap1.htm
Intelligent Design to Generate Biodiversity, by
Fernando Castro-Chavez. Abstract: The classic work of Mendel on the precise
inheritance of characters demonstrated an Intelligent Design behind the Laws of
Heredity. Those Laws can be linked now to our modern knowledge of molecular
biology to provide a clearer account of the molecular basis and limits to
biological change as well as to generate biodiversity:
http://www.iscid.org/boards/ubb-get_topic-f-6-t-000553.html
HybriDatabase. An internet searchable database of published references to
interspecific hybridization records, started in 1996 by Ashley Robinson and
Todd Wood; the Center for Origins Research (CORE), at the Bryan College, hosts
and maintains this database, which contained nearly 5000 hybrid records in Jan
24 2005):
http://www.bryancore.org/hdb/index.html
The "HybriDatabase" was designed for
the study of "Baraminology" (two Hebrew words, bara and min , the
created kind of Genesis
Examples:
1-
Laupala, a group of forest-dwelling Hawaiian crickets: "acoustic variants
can interbreed and hybridize" http://www.life.umd.edu/biology/faculty/shaw
"Reproductive groups whose members are all more likely to interbreed with
one another than with any individuals outside said group. Thus acoustic
variation in Laupala is thought to be "species" specific" http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3bio422/BEN%20MACARZ.htm
More than 150 varieties from a single pair of genetic colonizers. to see a
plate from Otte's book showing Hawaiian crickets and a picture of a
semi-transparent Cave Cricket, photo by Bill Mull: http://www.hawaii-forest.com/essays/9902.html
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2-
Cichlid species in Lake Victoria are extremely variable, displaying 500 color
morphs... in recent years, human activity has caused the water of Lake Victoria
to become cloudy. In these areas, the cichlids can't differentiate between
species. In these cloudy areas, bright color morphs have disappeared and the
fish have become similar and dull in appearance through hybridization
(Seehausen et al. 1997).
http://www.cichlidae.com/articles/a110.html (broken
link, see reference below)
Cichlids in
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11298988
Turner GF, Seehausen O, Knight ME, Allender CJ, Robinson RL. How many species
of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes? Mol Ecol. 2001 Mar;10(3):793-806.
http://www.hull.ac.uk/cichlids/GFTspp.pdf
From this article:
"...many taxa, including many which occur sympatrically and do not
interbreed in nature, produce viable, fertile hybrids."
"We have produced intergeneric hybrids of
References:
Seehausen O, van Alphen JJM, Witte F (1997) Cichlid fish diversity threatened
by eutrophication that curbs sexual selection. Science, 277, 1808-11.
Knight ME, Turner GF, Rico C, van Oppen MJH, Hewitt GM (1998) Microsatellite
paternity analysis on captive
------------
More on this:
"...mbuna [rockdweller cichlid] will hybridize under artificial
conditions (McElroy, D. M. & Kornfield, I. (1993) Copeia 1993, 933-945)... We
cannot rule out a role for hybridization..."
From:
R. C. Albertson, J. A. Markert, P. D. Danley, and T. D. Kocherdagger. Phylogeny
of a rapidly evolving clade: The cichlid fishes of
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/96/9/5107
------------
And More:
"We first estimated the effective number of genetic factors controlling
differences in the cichlid head through a comprehensive morphological
assessment of two Lake Malawi cichlid species and their F1 and F2 hybrid
progeny."
http://hcgs.unh.edu/CichlidEvol/CichlidEvol.html
[Here again, there is one true species with limitless varieties, with limitless
sub-species]
Cichlid Pictures: http://www.accuracyingenesis.com/kind.html
http://www.cichlids.com/gallery
http://www.hull.ac.uk/cichlids/mbuna_gallery.html
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3-
Dolphin and false killer whale: There has been one case of a female bottlenose
dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and a male false killer whale (Pseudorca
crassidens) producing a fertile female hybrid that has been called a wholphin.
She went on to breed with a dolphin and produced a daughter: In 1985, in the
http://www.geocities.com/plin9k/dolphins.jpg
--------------------
"in the order Cetacea, there appears to be few, if any, postcopulatory
species isolating mechanisms as successful hybridization between many species,
genera, and even sub-families have been recorded, (e.g., Fraser 1940; Nishiwaki
and Tobayama 1982; Reyes 1996)."
Taken from:
MacLeod, C. D. 2000. Species Recognition as a Possible Function for Variations
in Position and Shape of the Sexually Dimorphic Tusks of Mesoplodon Whales.
Evolution, 54(6):2171-3
References:
Fraser, F. C. 1940. Three anomalous dolphins from
Nishiwaki, M., and T. Tobayama. 1982. Morphological study on the hybrid between
Tursiops and Pseudorca. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst.
Reyes, J. C. 1996. A possible case of hybridisation in wild dolphins. Mar.
Mamm. Sci. 12:301-307.
http://hotspotshawaii.com/Wolphin.html
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4-
Porpoises: Dall's porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) and harbour porpoises
(Phocoena phocoena) can conceive offspring. According to Baird et al (1998)
many individuals with intermediate pigmentation have been observed, indicating
that such offspring may be viable:
"Atypically-pigmented porpoises (usually traveling with and behaving like
Dall's porpoise) are regularly observed in the area around southern
http://www.dal.ca/~whitelab/rwb/hybrid.htm
[Abstract and full article in PDF]
To se video and audio of Porpoises: http://www.junglewalk.com/popup.asp?type=v&AnimalvideoID=150
[Harbor porpoises]
http://encarta.msn.com/Porpoise.html
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5-
The Great Whales [fin whale x blue whale]:
Spilliaert R, Vikingsson G, Arnason U, Palsdottir A, Sigurjonsson J, Arnason A.
Species hybridization between a female blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) and a
male fin whale (B. physalus): molecular and morphological documentation. J
Hered. 1991 Jul-Aug;82(4):269-74.
"In 1986 a large, pregnant, female balaenopterid whale was caught in
Icelandic waters. The animal had morphological characteristics of both the blue
and the fin whale. Molecular analyses of the whale showed that it was a hybrid
between a female blue whale and a male fin whale. The descent of the species
hybrid was established without access to either parental specimen. Analysis of
the fetus showed that it had a blue whale father. The present report of species
hybridization between the two largest cetacean species, the blue and the fin
whale, documents the occurrence of cetacean species hybridization in the wild.
It is also the first example of any cetacean hybridization giving rise to a
fertile offspring."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=1679066
--------
Arnason U, Spilliaert R, Palsdottir A, Arnason A. Molecular identification of
hybrids between the two largest whale species, the blue whale (Balaenoptera
musculus) and the fin whale (B. physalus). Hereditas 1991;115(2):183-9.
"Three anomalous balaenopterid whales, one pregnant female and two sterile
males, were investigated by applying molecular approaches in order to establish
their identity. The analysis showed that the whales were species hybrids
between the blue and the fin whales. The female and one of the males had a blue
whale mother and a fin whale father. The other male had a fin whale mother and
a blue whale father."
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=1687408
--------
Berube et al. Population genetic structure of
"[Recurrent] gene flow between adjacent populations"
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9633102
Palsboll PJ, Berube M, Aguilar A, Notarbartolo-Di-Sciara G, Nielsen R.
Discerning between recurrent gene flow and recent divergence under a
finite-site mutation model applied to North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea fin
whale (Balaenoptera physalus) populations. Evolution Int J Org Evolution 2004
Mar;58(3):670-5.
"Intensive commercial shore-based whaling during the 1920s removed
substantial numbers of fin whales in the
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15119452
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Page 236-237, National Audubon Society "Guide to Marine Mammals of the
World", 2002, Knopf, 528 p.
"Blue Whales are known to occasionally hybridize with Fin Whales, and
unlikely as it would seem given the considerable differences in size and
morphology between the two species, there is one well-documented report of a
Humpback--Blue Whale hybrid from the South Pacific." http://www.cmnh.org/dinoarch/2002Nov/msg00217.html
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0375411410/102-6048677-3273719
--------
The Humpback/Fin hybrid surprises me more, considering the mating rituals and
accompanying singing that Humpbacks engage in. But it confirms that Humpbacks
are Rorquels, albiet aberrant forms.
http://www.cmnh.org/dinoarch/2002Nov/msg00174.html
Pictures of the Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus): http://www.earthwindow.com/blue.html
Pictures of the Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus): http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Balaenoptera_physalus/more_still_images.html
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6-
Grampus griseus (risso's dolphin) x Tursiops truncatus (bottlenose dolphin),
intermediate characters suggest hybridization
Taken from: Gray AP (Annie P), Mammalian Hybrids, 1972, Commonwealth
Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks, England. Book database by 'genus': http://www.bryancore.org/hdb/index.html
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7-
Bobcat and lynx: Bobcats (Lynx rufus) and lynxes (Lynx canadensis) can cross;
several such crosses have happened naturally in the wild. http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/main/pa/newsclips/03_06/0604_canadalynx.html
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8-
A new variety of snake, product of a cross between an albino corn snake (Elaphe
guttata) and an albino king snake (Lampropeltis triangulum) in a reptile park
in Bakersfield, California and belongs to David Jolly, Manager of the
Information Department, AiG (USA). Apparently it is fertile. http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/magazines/docs/v22n3_liger.asp
Corn snakes are
one of the most popular pet snakes in
To
Download some 10 Free e-Books, mainly dealing with reptiles and amphibians: http://www.herper.com/ebooks/titles.html
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9-
Even the finches
on the Galapagos and on any other different habitat are able to mate and to
produce fertile young, showing conclusively that there are not different
species of finches but merely varieties of the same species. Finches mate
naturally, as studies by Peter and Rosemary Grant have proved. Here once more,
the fallibility on using the concept of "Species" is due to human
ignorance. Evolutionary thinking attempts to confuse uninformed readers with
their presuppositions and their inaccurate 'basic definitions.'
"Raise a
baby male zebra finch with a Bengalese mother finch, and the zebra finch will
grow up to ignore female zebra finches but devotedly court Bengalese finches
(Bischof 1994)." http://www.ratbehavior.org/Hybridization.htm
'Speciation' does
not occurred in the present or in the past, neither 'evolution'.
"You can never solve a problem on the level on which it was created."
"A man should look for what is, and not for what he thinks should
be." Albert Einstein.
"Most of these six ground finches will interbreed, and the hybrids are
fertile, meaning they can also breed among themselves. This information is
quite startling because it means that these six species may actually be one
species. And the actual degree of change is quite miniscule. The average beak
size may change by only a half a millimeter from dry to wet season. These six
finches are also indistinguishable in their mtDNA. As an icon of evolution, the
finches are far less than hoped for."
Fragment from:
"The
The fact that
evolution is not true can be seen also in those finches, they are of the same
real species or kind: "fertile parents = fertile offspring." Nothing
is 'evolving' beyond the natural limits established within the species:
http://www.carlzimmer.com/articles/2002/articles_2002_Finch.html
"The two species on Daphne Major can and sometimes do interbreed, and
their hybrids--far from being mule-like reproductive dead ends--are a source of
fresh genetic variability." "Interbreeding may be one of the
secrets... hybrids may be an unrecognized factor..." "...five male cactus
finches for every female. A few desperate males mated with female ground
finches, which then produced perfectly healthy and fertile hybrids."
"As a result, ground finch genes are flowing into the cactus finch gene
pool--a process called introgression--making their beaks blunter."
"Other biologists are surprised that two distantly related species can
produce healthy hybrids..." "This new source of genetic diversity
makes it easier for a species with donated genes to adapt to a changing
environment, the Grants claim."
In the words of
the researchers themselves:
Grant PR, Grant BR. Genetics and the origin of bird species. Proc Natl Acad Sci
U S A 1997 Jul 22;94(15):7768-75. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/15/7768
"...the populations are only partly reproductively isolated, interbreeding
occurs, and some of the hybrids survive to breed" "...species
hybridize, rarely, and are capable of producing fertile hybrids that backcross
to the parental species" "...interbreeding of species and the
breeding of hybrids ..."
[Refs: Grant, P. R. & Grant, B. R. (1992) Science 256, 193-197; Grant, P.
R. & Grant, B. R. (1997) Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 60, 317-343; Grant, B. R.
& Grant, P. R. (1997) in Endless Forms: Species and Speciation, eds.
Howard, D. J. & Berlocher, S. H. (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford)]
"...field observations of natural hybridization have been made on the
islands of Daphne Major"
[Grant, P. R. (1993) Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 340, 127-139, Grant,
P. R. & Price, T. D. (1981) Am. Zool. 21, 795-811, Boag, P. T. & Grant,
P. R. (1984) Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 22, 243-287]
" and [the island] Genovesa"
[Grant, B. R. & Grant, P. R. (1989) Evolutionary Dynamics of a Natural
Population: The Large Cactus Finch of the Galapagos (Univ.
"These show that all six species of
[Grant, P. R. (1986) Ecology and Evolution of Darwin's Finches (Princeton Univ.
Press, Princeton, N. J.), Bowman, R. I. (1983) in Patterns of Evolution in
Gal�pagos Organisms, eds. Bowman, R. I., Berson, M. & Leviton, A. E.
(American Association for the Advancement of Science, San Francisco), pp.
237-537].
On Daphne Major Geospiza fortis (medium ground finch) hybridizes with G.
scandens (cactus finch), another resident species, and G. fuliginosa (small
ground finch), an uncommon immigrant. Contrary to expectation from the
reinforcement hypothesis, hybrids formed by Geospiza fortis breeding with G.
scandens and G. fuliginosa are both viable and fertile to a degree similar to
that of the contemporary offspring of conspecific matings; so are the first two
generations of backcrosses" "Backcrossing negates the hypothesis of
speciation occurring entirely in allopatry." "In tests of several
species the discrimination was often weak, implying that song difference, by
itself, would not be sufficient to prevent interbreeding."
"At the point of ring closure or overlap where two populations establish
secondary contact they do not interbreed, or do so extremely rarely; e.g.,
herring gull and lesser black-backed gull. A cross-fostering experiment with
these gulls showed that, as in Darwin's finches, misimprinted birds are capable
of producing viable hybrids, i.e., once the premating isolating mechanism is
broken"
[Harris, M. P. (1970) Ibis 112, 488-498; Harris, M. P., Morley, C. & Green,
G. H. (1978) Bird Study 25, 161-166]
From the
Abstract:
"Ideas about
the genetics of speciation in general trace back to Dobzhansky who worked with
Drosophila. These ideas are an insufficient guide for reconstructing speciation
in birds " " the genetic basis to the origin of bird species is to be
sought in the inheritance of adult traits " "The genetic basis of the
origin of postmating isolating factors affecting the early development of
embryos (viability) and reproductive physiology (sterility) is almost
completely unknown. Bird speciation is facilitated by small population size,
involves few genetic changes, and occurs relatively rapidly."
[My comment: Here
"sub-speciation" is been sold as "speciation" in order to
keep the 'double-talk', 'weak and confusing terminologies', and the illusory
concepts of 'evolution', but the full text, as demonstrated before, presents a
different picture in which different 'species' of Galapagos finches interbreed
and produce fertile offspring, being then, not different 'species' but the same
'species'. The error being in the superficial morphological classification done
by Darwin, Haeckel and by others, instead of being based on the ancient
definition of "kind" ("fertile progenitors yielding fertile
little ones that in its time will breed fertile offspring"). The real
'Species' can not only be defined morphologically. Sub-speciation is the real
variation within species. Sub-speciation is deliberately confounded with
'speciation', which is the evolutionist speculation of the fictitious 'jumping'
of one species to be transmutated into another species. The best test is the
original definition of kind, which can be applied to the word 'Species':
"Fertile parents producing fertile offspring", implying the need of
the reproductive 'fertility test' also for the offspring. 'Evolution' tries to
confound the unlearned with tricky and weak definitions of 'species' to walk
around and aside from the simple and original truth present in the word 'kind'
that we found in the Bible.]
Some of the
Grant's recent works:
Grant PR, Grant BR, Keller LF, Markert JA, Petren K. Inbreeding and
interbreeding in
Markert JA, Grant PR, Grant BR, Keller LF, Coombs JL, Petren K. Neutral locus
heterozygosity, inbreeding, and survival in
Keller LF, Grant PR, Grant BR, Petren K. Environmental conditions affect the
magnitude of inbreeding depression in survival of
To see
pictures of those interfertile finches: http://www.rit.edu/~rhrsbi/GalapagosPages/Pictures/LandBirds/FinchTypes.jpeg
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10-
The male 'cama':
Veterinarians in the
http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/magazines/docs/v22n3_liger.asp
http://www.cnn.com/EARTH/9801/20/cama.ap
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"Skidmore said they won't know whether Rama can reproduce until he reaches
puberty in about 18 months to two years... may live 20 or even 30 years if all
goes well, and when fully grown should weigh midway between a llama's average
weight of 75 kilos and a camel's 450 kilos." http://www.datadubai.com/cama1.htm
http://www.datadubai.com/cama2.htm
"A third camel-llama cross, the second male, born January of '03": http://www.taylorllamas.com/Camel-LamaCrossPhotos.html
Skidmore JA, Billah M, Binns M, Short RV, Allen WR. Hybridizing Old and
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10331286
Skidmore JA, Billah M, Short RV, Allen WR. Assisted reproductive techniques for
hybridization of camelids. Reprod Fertil Dev. 2001;13(7-8):647-52. [From
Abstract: "The camelid family comprises the
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10331286
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The female 'cama':
"Like a mule or hinny, the hybrid between a horse and donkey, she is
likely to be sterile... born after 343 days which is within the typical
gestation period for the llama (335-360 days), but is much shorter than the
camel's (385-395 days)... weighed only 5kg at birth. This is less than a
newborn llama which weighs around 10kg and much less than a newborn camel at
30kg. It is a striking illustration of how the size of the mother controls the
size of the newborn, irrespective of the size of the father... It seems that it
is easier for the female llama to conceive from camel semen than for the female
camel to conceive from llama semen." http://www.gulf-news.com/Articles/news.asp?ArticleID=43065
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" Lama glama, the llama; Lama pacos, the alpaca; Lama guanicoe, the
Guanaco; and Vicugna vicugna, the Vicuna. They will
interbreed and do produce fertile hybrids." http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/other/other-w.htm
http://www.fungus.org.uk/camelids.htm
"The Incas domesticated the guanaco to produce the llama and the vicuna to
produce the alpaca. All four of these New World camelids can readily be made to
hybridise with each other." http://www.gulf-news.com/Articles/news.asp?ArticleID=43065
http://www.taylorllamas.com/Camel-LamaCrossPhotos.html
"Llamas, guanacos, alpacas and vicunas can interbreed and should therefore
be pastured separately."
http://www.llama-llocater.com/llama_facts.html
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12-
Bactrian Camel x Dromedary Camels
"The Bactrian and Dromedary Camels can interbreed. The resulting offspring
has a single, elongated hump that extends the length of its back. http://camelphotos.com/camel_breeds.html
http://www.exoticdeer.org/blaschke2b.htm
Arabian camel x Bactrian camel: http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/pubs/camels.htm
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13-
Ibex x goats:
There are several different species of ibex -- Alpine (or European), Nubian (or
Arabian), Siberian (or Asiatic) and walia (or Abyssinian). In
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14-
The Plains zebras are also sub-species (Grants x Damaraland cross). The
difference is in their striping pattern and range. They can interbreed and have
fertile offspring. http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Studios/2905/zebxing.html
Zebra born
without the stripes in
Veterinarians have yet to determine the gender of the baby zebra but have
determined that it is about 4 weeks old. The purebred zebra is also apparently
fitting in with its black and white herd and can be seen hopping and prancing
around. Experts do not plan to take the zebra away from its mom or the herd but
plan to study it as it grows up.
Stripeless Zebra Puzzles Experts: http://www.local6.com/news/2999935/detail.html
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The American and European bison can interbreed and produce fertile offspring,
they have clear differences in their physical characteristics, and geographical
separation for a long time.
http://www.csew.com/cattletag/Cattle%20Website/Fact_Sheets/American_Bison/American_Bison.htm
More pictures of European bison (Bison bonasus): http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Bison_bonasus.html
More pictures of American Bison (Bison bison): http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Bison_bison.html
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Guinea pigs:
Cavia cutleri m x Cavia porcellus, fertile viable F1 hybrids.
Cavia fulgida x Cavia porcellus, sterile viable F1 hybrids, however,
Detlefsen reports fertile hybrids in the wild.
Taken from: Gray AP, Mammalian Hybrids, 1972, Commonwealth Agricultural
Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks,
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17-
Northeastern coyotes, product of hybridization between Canadian wolves and
Western coyotes:
http://www.wildlifetech.com/pages/necoyote.htm
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Red wolves:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9919703
Also "red wolf/coyote hybrid litters were born":
http://www.geocities.com/kanamist/Redwolf.
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